Frequently asked questions on diversity and sexism at work
The same 100 answers as in the German FAQ, in 10 topic blocks. Each names its source. Legal position: 13 November 2026, German law. General information, not legal advice.
Foundations of diversity and diversity management Perception, stereotypes and prejudice Discrimination and equal opportunities Law: the AGG and the EU Sexism and sexual harassment: recognising it and the evidence Help, complaints and civil courage Pay, careers and leadership Gender and gender diversity at work Putting diversity management into practice: training, workshops, monitoring Leadership, self-reflection and collaboration
Foundations of diversity and diversity management
What does diversity mean?
Diversity (in German, Vielfalt) refers to the differences between people, for example in age, gender, ethnic and cultural background, belief or sexual identity. The Federal Agency for Civic Education (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, bpb) sees diversity as a resource and an opportunity, and names as its aim that everyone can take part in social life on an equal footing. In organisations, the question is how these differences are handled.
Which characteristics count as diversity?
Diversity includes age, gender, ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, and sexual orientation and identity, among others; there is no fixed, universally accepted list. The German federal government adds gender identity and nationality. Broader models, such as the one by Gardenswartz and Rowe, also list education, marital status, income or work experience. Legal protection under the General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) exists only for the grounds named in § 1.
What does the four-layer model of diversity show?
The model by Gardenswartz and Rowe arranges diversity in four layers: personality at the centre, then the internal dimensions (for example age, gender, ethnic origin, physical ability, sexual orientation), then the external ones (for example education, income, marital status, religion, work experience) and finally the organisational ones (for example department, length of service, management status). It shows that every person is made up of many dimensions and not of a single characteristic.
What is diversity management, and does a company have to have it?
Diversity management means shaping diversity in an organisation in a planned way, with goals, measures, clear responsibilities and indicators. Under German law, the General Equal Treatment Act (Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz, AGG) does not require a programme of this kind. Under § 12 (1) AGG, however, the employer must take the measures necessary to protect against discrimination, including preventive ones. How far this duty extends in an individual case is a legal question and not the subject of this answer.
Why is diversity an issue for employers?
Because workforces are already diverse and the law prohibits discrimination in the workplace. According to the 2025 microcensus of the Federal Statistical Office (Destatis), 27 per cent of employees in Germany have an immigration history, and in nursing occupations, which the Federal Employment Agency classes as shortage occupations, the figure is 33 per cent (Destatis, first results). That is only one of many dimensions. In addition, § 12 of the General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) requires employers in Germany to prevent discrimination.
Does diversity management demonstrably lead to business success?
According to the research we examined, this cannot be said in general. A meta-analysis of 146 studies (van Dijk and colleagues 2012) found only small associations between diversity and team performance. An attempted replication of McKinsey reports (Green and Hand 2024) found no significant association. Both are correlations, not causal evidence. For the composition of management, clear responsibilities had the strongest effect (Kalev and colleagues 2006, US data up to 2002).
Which three paradigms of diversity management are there?
Thomas and Ely (1996) distinguish three perspectives: fairness and discrimination protection (equal treatment, with success measured by hiring and retention targets), access and legitimacy (diversity as a way to reach diverse customer groups, with the risk of confining people to niche tasks) and learning and effectiveness (differences feed into the core work so that the organisation learns and becomes more effective).
What is the difference between integration and diversity management?
Integration means fitting people into existing structures, with them adapting to the requirements of those structures; this is how the UN Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities describes it for education. Diversity management in the sense of the learning approach by Thomas and Ely goes further: different perspectives are meant to feed into the core work. Applying this to companies is my own transfer, and in everyday use the terms are not used consistently.
Why can a very uniform team be risky?
Because disagreement then occurs less often and mistakes are more likely to go unnoticed. In an experiment by Phillips, Liljenquist and Neale (2009) with 50 groups of four, groups that included an outsider more often named the right culprit in a case, but felt less certain while doing so. Homogeneous groups felt more certain but were wrong more often. A single study with students does not establish a general rule.
Can diversity in teams cause friction at first?
Yes. A meta-analysis of 108 studies with 10,632 teams (Stahl and colleagues 2010) found that cultural diversity in teams leads to more task conflict and lower social integration, but also to more creativity and satisfaction. The effect depends on the context. According to van Knippenberg, De Dreu and Homan (2004), every dimension of diversity can also have both positive and negative effects.
Perception, stereotypes and prejudice
Why do prejudices arise so easily?
Because categorising and simplifying are part of normal thinking. Tversky and Kahneman (1974) described rules of thumb that are usually useful but produce systematic errors, for instance when judgements are made by category membership. As early as 1922, Walter Lippmann saw stereotypes as a saving of effort. That does not yet mean a prejudice has formed, because that takes evaluation and rigidity.
What is the difference between a stereotype and a prejudice?
A stereotype is a heavily simplified attribution of characteristics to people because of the group they belong to; a prejudice comes with an evaluation. According to Gordon Allport, a prejudice rests on a faulty and rigid generalisation and goes along with dislike. A stereotype therefore describes an assumption, while a prejudice often persists even against counter-examples. Both are attitudes and not yet behaviour.
Does every stereotype lead to discrimination?
No. According to the specialist literature, prejudice does not necessarily lead to discrimination, and discrimination can also arise without personal prejudice, for example through institutional rules. The sequence of category, stereotype, prejudice and discrimination is an organising model, not an automatic process. What matters is the step to action: who is actually put at a disadvantage in selection, assessment or allocation?
Can distortions in thinking be switched off?
Not reliably. A meta-analysis (Forscher and colleagues 2019, 492 studies) found that implicit measures can be changed, but the effects were often small and mostly short-lived, and they did not carry over to behaviour. People also see bias more readily in others than in themselves (Pronin and colleagues 2002). The author concludes that procedures need attention as well as attitudes.
What are System 1 and System 2 in thinking?
Kahneman describes two kinds of thinking: System 1 works fast, automatically, effortlessly and by association; System 2 is slower, deliberate and demanding. According to Kahneman (2003), System 2 usually monitors the quick judgements only loosely, and under extra load the error rate rises. For judgements about people, this means the first impression forms quickly and is not always checked.
What is confirmation bias?
Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out or interpret information in a way that supports existing beliefs or an assumption already held. According to Nickerson (1998), this mostly happens unconsciously and appears in many forms. Someone with a fixed assumption about a person therefore notices what fits it more readily and overlooks what speaks against it.
What is the Pygmalion effect?
The Pygmalion effect describes how other people's expectations can influence actual performance. It became known through the study by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968): teachers were told that randomly chosen children were about to make a leap in performance; on average they gained about four IQ points more (r ≈ 0.15), clearly so only in the first two grades. According to Jussim and Harber (2005), such effects are mostly small, and replications succeeded only in part.
What is in-group bias?
In-group bias means favouring members of one's own group. A meta-analysis on cooperation (Balliet and colleagues 2014) found that people cooperate more strongly with their own group than with outsiders (d = 0.32, a small to medium effect). According to the abstract, this rests more on favouring one's own group than on devaluing the other. The effect was larger when the people involved were dependent on one another.
How do stereotypes arise?
Stereotypes arise from simplifications in thinking and from observation. Koenig and Eagly (2014) found that stereotypes about groups are closely tied to the roles that group members often occupy: anyone who observes a role attributes the characteristics typical of it to the group. According to Fiske and colleagues (2002), groups with higher status are seen as more competent, and groups in competition for resources as less warm.
How can prejudice be reduced?
Contact between groups is well studied. Pettigrew and Tropp (2008) found that contact reduces prejudice mainly through less anxiety and more perspective-taking; new knowledge was the weakest route. According to that paper, the earlier analysis of 515 studies found a mean association of r = -0.21. Short interventions have an unclear long-term effect, according to Paluck and colleagues (2021).
Discrimination and equal opportunities
Is unconscious discrimination also discrimination?
Under German law, what matters is the disadvantage, not the intention: the terms direct and indirect discrimination in § 3 (1) and (2) of the General Equal Treatment Act (Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz, AGG) do not mention any intent to discriminate. Under § 7 (1) AGG, the prohibition also applies if the person acting merely assumes that the ground is present. Whether claims exist in an individual case and what has to be proved is a legal question. This is not legal advice.
What is subtle discrimination?
Subtle discrimination is disadvantage without open rejection, showing up in assessments, expectations and small decisions. An experiment makes this visible: in Moss-Racusin and colleagues (2012), 127 faculty members at research-intensive universities rated identical application materials for a laboratory manager post. The application with a male name was seen as more competent and more worth hiring, and received a higher salary offer. Women and men among the raters showed the bias to a similar degree.
What is structural discrimination?
Structural discrimination arises even without personal prejudice on the part of individuals, namely through rules, routines and procedures that apply formally to everyone but in practice put certain groups at a disadvantage. Anti-discrimination law takes this up as indirect discrimination: under German law, § 3 (2) of the General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) covers apparently neutral provisions, criteria or procedures that can put persons at a particular disadvantage because of a protected ground, unless they are objectively justified.
What is the difference between direct and indirect discrimination?
Under German law, direct discrimination occurs where one person is treated less favourably than another in a comparable situation because of a protected ground (§ 3 (1) of the General Equal Treatment Act, AGG). It is indirect where apparently neutral provisions, criteria or procedures can put persons at a particular disadvantage because of such a ground (§ 3 (2) AGG). A justification can then apply if there is a legitimate aim and the means are appropriate and necessary.
What is the difference between equality and equal opportunity?
Equality means treating people by the same rules; Article 3 (1) of the Basic Law (Grundgesetz, GG) states that all persons are equal before the law. Equal opportunity asks in addition whether starting positions differ so much that equal rules lock in disadvantages. For women and men, Article 3 (2) sentence 2 GG obliges the state to remove existing disadvantages. As a legal term, equal opportunity (Chancengerechtigkeit) does not appear in Article 3 GG or in the AGG.
What do quotas achieve?
That depends on the aim. A quota prescribes the composition of certain bodies. On the Norwegian board quota, Bertrand and colleagues (2019) found that it narrowed the pay gap within boards but had hardly any visible effect on women outside the boards. In Germany, among others, a fixed quota of at least 30 per cent on the supervisory board applies to listed companies with parity co-determination; for many other companies, target figures are provided for. As of 13 November 2026.
What is the difference between integration and inclusion?
According to the UN Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2016, on education), integration means placing people in existing institutions, provided they adapt to the requirements of those institutions. Inclusion, in that view, is a process of systemic reform that changes content, methods and structures in order to remove barriers. Applying this to companies is my own transfer; in general usage the two words are not used consistently.
Why is it not enough to see no differences?
Because differences do not disappear that way, and disadvantage becomes harder to recognise. Apfelbaum, Norton and Sommers (2012) summarise studies on the colour-blind stance towards skin colour: children who were told a colour-blind story recognised clear discrimination less often and rated it as less serious. The authors suggest acknowledging diversity and including all groups instead of passing over differences.
What is intersectionality?
Intersectionality describes how forms of discrimination can overlap, so that people experience disadvantage that a single characteristic does not explain. In 1989, Kimberlé Crenshaw criticised that race and gender are often treated as separate categories in anti-discrimination law, which leaves Black women invisible. Under German law, § 4 of the General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) governs treatment on several grounds: a justification must then extend to all of the grounds.
What is privilege, and do I have to feel guilty?
Privileges are advantages that people have in everyday life because of characteristics such as skin colour or gender, without having earned them; this is how Peggy McIntosh (1988) describes it. According to McIntosh, personal guilt or shame are not the point; the point is to recognise such structures. She advises using one's own advantages, such as time, money or contacts, to share power, and warns against self-righteousness.
Law: the AGG and the EU
What does the German General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) regulate?
The German General Equal Treatment Act (Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz, AGG) aims to prevent or eliminate discrimination on grounds of race (the wording of the statute, 'Rasse'), ethnic origin, sex, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual identity (§ 1). It applies in working life and in parts of everyday life, such as education and goods and services (§ 2 (1)). It came into force on 18 August 2006. This is not legal advice.
Which characteristics does the German General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) protect?
In § 1, the General Equal Treatment Act (Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz, AGG) names eight grounds if religion and belief are counted separately: race (the wording of the statute, 'Rasse'), ethnic origin, sex, religion, belief, disability, age and sexual identity. Other characteristics such as marital status or social status are not listed there. As at 13 November 2026, the reform of the AGG exists only as a draft bill (Bundestag printed paper, Drucksache, 21/6178). This is not legal advice.
Does the AGG apply only at work?
No. Under § 2 (1), the General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) protects not only selection, working conditions, pay and dismissal, but also career guidance and further training, social protection, social advantages, education and access to publicly offered goods and services, including housing. In civil law, § 19 provides a prohibition of discrimination mainly for mass transactions and private insurance. How this applies in an individual case is a legal question.
Who has to prove what in a dispute about discrimination?
Affected persons must prove indications that suggest discrimination on a protected ground. If they succeed, the other side must prove that there was no breach. This is what § 22 of the German General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) provides. The easing applies in a dispute and only helps if there are verifiable indications, such as data, messages, witnesses or notes made at the time. Whether the indications are sufficient in your own case depends on the circumstances; advice can assess this in advance. This is not legal advice.
What time limit applies to claims under the German General Equal Treatment Act (AGG)?
Under § 15 (4) of the General Equal Treatment Act (Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz, AGG), claims for damages and compensation must be asserted in writing within two months, unless a collective agreement provides otherwise. For job applications or promotion, the period starts when the rejection is received; otherwise it starts when the person becomes aware of the discrimination. For a compensation claim in court, § 61b of the German Labour Courts Act (ArbGG) adds a further three months after the written assertion. Because the time limits are short, it is worth seeking advice early. This is not legal advice.
Will the time limit under the German General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) be extended to four months?
Not yet: the extension from two to four months is so far only a draft bill. The Federal Government introduced it in the Bundestag as printed paper (Drucksache) 21/6178, dated 1 June 2026. It amends § 15 (4) of the General Equal Treatment Act (Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz, AGG) and, for civil law matters, § 21 (5) AGG. According to the sources examined, it had been neither passed nor promulgated on 13 November 2026, and its content may still change. Until then, the two-month period applies.
What is the planned conciliation body for AGG disputes?
It is a proposal in Bill 21/6178 and not yet law. Section 27a of the draft AGG amendment (§ 27a AGG-E) provides for a conciliation body at the Independent Federal Commissioner for Anti-Discrimination, that is, within the Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency (Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes). Neutral conciliators who are qualified to hold judicial office are to settle disputes out of court. The application is to be possible in text form, and the procedure is to be free of charge. If no agreement is reached, a non-binding conciliation proposal follows. The content may still change.
Did the AGG trigger the feared wave of lawsuits?
No. According to the 2016 evaluation of the AGG, the wave of lawsuits feared before it came into force did not materialise; in its assessment, abuse of the law was vanishingly rare. As obstacles to proceedings it names a lack of knowledge about one's own rights, actual or assumed costs and the short time limit, and it regards the question of proof as a central problem. It recommended a longer time limit. Court statistics do not record out-of-court settlements, so case numbers say only so much.
Does Article 3 of the Basic Law also apply in the workplace?
Only to a limited extent. Under Article 1 (3) of the Basic Law (Grundgesetz, GG), fundamental rights bind legislation, the executive and the judiciary; private employers are not directly addressed. Since the Federal Constitutional Court's Lüth judgment of 1958, however, fundamental rights have an indirect effect in private law, mainly through general clauses. The specific prohibition of discrimination in employment is set out in the AGG. Whether Article 3 applies directly in an individual case, for example with public employers, is a legal question.
Which EU directives are behind the AGG?
The AGG implements four EU directives: 2000/43/EC (Racial Equality Directive, 29 June 2000), 2000/78/EC (Employment Equality Framework Directive, 27 November 2000), 2002/73/EC (Gender Directive, 23 September 2002) and 2004/113/EC (equal treatment on grounds of sex outside the world of work, 13 December 2004). This is how the explanatory memorandum to the 2006 draft bill, from which the AGG emerged, lists them.
Sexism and sexual harassment: recognising it and the evidence
What is sexism?
Sexism refers to acts, statements and practices that treat people as inferior because of their sex. Under the Council of Europe's 2019 definition, this also includes what reinforces gender stereotypes or creates a hostile environment; intention alone is not decisive. Sexism can affect people of any gender. It is a broad descriptive term and does not coincide with the narrower legal concept of discrimination in the German General Equal Treatment Act (AGG).
What counts as sexual harassment in German law?
Under § 3 (4) of the German General Equal Treatment Act (AGG), sexual harassment is a form of discrimination where unwanted conduct of a sexual nature violates the dignity of the person concerned; it is enough that this is intended or has that effect. As examples, the Act names unwanted sexual acts and requests to carry them out, physical contact of a sexual nature, sexual remarks and the visible display of pornographic images. This applies in employment and working life. Whether conduct reaches the threshold is decided on the facts of the individual case; this is not legal advice.
Where is the line between flirting and sexual harassment?
According to the wording of the law, the line lies at unwantedness and the violation of dignity. § 3 (4) of the German General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) requires unwanted conduct of a sexual nature that violates dignity; it is enough that it has this effect, and intent does not matter. Whether a remark or gesture reaches the threshold depends on its content, context and effect. There is no fixed list of permitted and prohibited sentences. In case of doubt, advice helps, for example from the Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency (Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes).
Are sexist jokes at work a problem?
Yes, they can be, both for the working atmosphere and in law. The Council of Europe expressly names sex-related jokes as a form of sexism in the workplace. Under German law, harassment within the meaning of § 3 (3) of the General Equal Treatment Act (Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz, AGG) may be involved where unwanted conduct connected with sex violates dignity and has the purpose or effect of creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment. According to the wording, calling it a joke does not automatically excuse the conduct, because the effect also counts. The individual case decides.
What is benevolent sexism?
Benevolent sexism means attitudes that seem friendly or protective from the speaker's point of view but confine people to gender roles. The term comes from Peter Glick and Susan Fiske (1996). They describe it as the counterpart to hostile sexism, that is, open devaluation, and see the two as belonging together even though they sound opposed. Good intentions alone therefore do not decide whether a remark works as sexism.
What are microaggressions?
Microaggressions are brief, everyday remarks, gestures or circumstances that devalue or exclude people because of a characteristic, often without ill intent. According to Sue and colleagues (2007), the term goes back to Chester Pierce (1970) and comes from research on racism. The authors consider similar effects possible for other characteristics, such as gender. It is not a legal term; whether something touches the AGG is checked against the text of the statute.
How common is sexual harassment in the working environment?
Around 20 per cent of the employees surveyed in Germany in December 2024 said they had experienced cases of sexual harassment in their working environment: 24 per cent of women and 15 per cent of men (IAB Short Report 9/2025, Institute for Employment Research, 2,814 respondents). The question was whether they had been affected themselves or whether there had been incidents in their immediate surroundings, covering their working life to date. The figure is therefore not a rate of people affected personally. Around 13 per cent of establishments with 50 or more employees reported at least one case in two years.
How many employed people have themselves experienced sexual harassment?
According to a study presented by the Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency (Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes, ADS), 9 per cent of employed people had been affected themselves in the previous three years, 13 per cent of women and 5 per cent of men. It rests on a representative telephone survey of 1,531 employed people between June 2018 and May 2019 (Schröttle, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg). Only 4 per cent of those affected sought professional advice. The figures are older and were collected differently from those of the IAB in 2025, so they cannot be compared directly.
What are the consequences of sexual harassment for businesses?
Of the establishments that named at least one case, 72 per cent report at least one negative consequence (IAB Short Report 9/2025). The survey asked about morale, productivity, absence and staff turnover. Morale and productivity were affected in about two thirds, absence and turnover in just under half. The basis is the establishments' own reports: 738 private establishments with 50 or more employees, surveyed in 2023 and 2024.
Are only women affected by sexual harassment?
No. Women report it more often, but men do too. According to IAB Short Report 9/2025, 24 per cent of women and 15 per cent of men said they had experienced cases in their working environment. In the 2019 ADS study, 13 per cent of women and 5 per cent of men had been affected themselves within three years. The AGG protects employees regardless of their gender; § 3 (4) AGG speaks of the person affected.
Help, complaints and civil courage
What can I do as an affected person?
There are several options, and nobody is obliged to do anything: seek advice, complain within the company and, if you want to pursue claims, assert them in writing in good time. It helps to write down incidents promptly and factually (date, place, wording, people present) and to keep messages. In Germany, advice is available from the Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency (Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes) on 0800 546 546 5, Monday to Thursday, 9 am to 3 pm. Keep the two-month period under § 15 (4) of the German General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) in view.
Where can I complain within the company?
Under § 13 of the German General Equal Treatment Act (Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz, AGG), employees can complain to the responsible bodies of the establishment, company or department if they feel discriminated against in connection with their employment, including by colleagues or third parties. The employer must make known which bodies are responsible (§ 12 (5) AGG), for example by notice or through the usual channels of communication. The complaint must be examined and the outcome communicated. It does not replace the written assertion of claims under § 15 (4) AGG.
Does my employer have to have procedures and prevention in place?
Under § 12 (1) of the German General Equal Treatment Act (Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz, AGG), the employer is obliged to take the measures necessary to protect against discrimination, including preventive ones. The Act and the complaints bodies must also be made known in the workplace (§ 12 (5)). The law does not specify in detail how the duty is to be put into practice; that is a legal question. In practice, both are often missing: according to the Institute for Employment Research (IAB) in 2025, about 38 per cent of the establishments surveyed with 50 or more employees had neither prevention nor a procedure.
How often do companies provide training on sexual harassment?
Rather rarely: according to IAB Short Report 9/2025, just under 15 per cent of the surveyed establishments with 50 or more employees had held training or awareness-raising on the subject in the two years before the survey. The basis is 738 private establishments, surveyed in 2023 and 2024. Legally, suitable training of employees counts under § 12 (2) AGG as fulfilment of the employer's duties under paragraph 1; when training is suitable, the text of the statute does not specify in more detail.
May I refuse to work if protection is missing?
Yes, under narrow conditions. Under German law, § 14 AGG allows employees to stop working without loss of pay if the employer takes no measures, or obviously unsuitable ones, against harassment or sexual harassment and stopping work is necessary for their protection. Whether these conditions are met in your own case is hard to judge. Getting advice before taking this step makes sense. This is not legal advice.
What advice is available outside the company?
The Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency (Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes) advises on discrimination on the grounds named in the German General Equal Treatment Act (AGG), for example sexual harassment at work: telephone 0800 546 546 5, Monday to Thursday, 9 am to 3 pm. It provides information, gives legal advice and, on request, can arrange an amicable settlement or help close to where you live. For violence against women in Germany, the helpline 116 016 can help. Other points of contact are trade unions and legal advice. Check the opening times on the agency's website beforehand.
What role does the works council play in complaints?
The works council can support employees and receive complaints. Under § 84 of the Works Constitution Act (Betriebsverfassungsgesetz, BetrVG), employees may lodge a complaint and bring in a works council member for it; no disadvantage may arise for them because of the complaint. Under § 85 BetrVG, the works council receives complaints and works towards a remedy with the employer if it considers them justified; in a dispute it can call the conciliation committee, except for legal claims. § 13 (2) AGG leaves these rights unaffected.
Where can I turn to in cases of violence against women?
Women who experience or have experienced violence can reach the 'Violence against Women' helpline (Hilfetelefon 'Gewalt gegen Frauen') on 116 016: free, confidential and anonymous, around the clock, 365 days a year, by phone, online chat or email. With interpreters, advice is possible in 18 foreign languages, and also in Easy Language and German Sign Language. Relatives, friends and professionals can also turn to it. For harassment at the workplace, the ministry refers to the Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency.
How can colleagues step in when harassment happens?
There are several ways, and stepping in directly is only one of them. The organisation Right To Be describes five: Distract (speak to the person affected without mentioning the harassment), Delegate (ask a third person for help), Document, Delay (support afterwards) and Direct (intervene directly). What matters is the wish of the person affected and your own safety; direct intervention is considered risky there. Anyone who could not step in can offer help afterwards.
What is victim blaming, and why does it do harm?
Victim blaming (in German Täter-Opfer-Umkehr, literally reversal of perpetrator and victim) means that responsibility for a person's behaviour is sought with the person affected, for example by asking about clothing, their own behaviour or a late reaction. The focus shifts from the harassing behaviour to the reaction to it. In law, the violation lies with the harassing behaviour; under § 16 (2) AGG, it also must not count against employees whether they rejected or put up with discriminatory behaviour.
Pay, careers and leadership
How high is the gender pay gap in Germany?
The unadjusted gender pay gap was 16 per cent in 2025, as in the previous year. According to the Federal Statistical Office (Destatis), women earned an average of €22.81 gross per hour and men €27.05, a difference of €4.24. The basis is the earnings survey with April as the reference month, calculated using the Eurostat definition excluding public administration and excluding enterprises with fewer than ten employees; including public administration the figure is 15 per cent. The value compares all employees, not equivalent jobs.
What does the adjusted gender pay gap mean?
The adjusted gender pay gap compares women and men with similar characteristics, including part-time work, sector, occupation and level of requirements, and stood at 6 per cent in 2025 (west 6, east 9 per cent). Destatis understands it as an upper limit for possible pay discrimination, not as proof of it: the value would probably be lower if data on career breaks due to pregnancy, childcare or caring were available. It corresponds to the unexplained remainder of about 40 per cent of the earnings gap.
Why do women earn less than men on average?
According to Destatis, about 60 per cent of the earnings difference of 4.24 euros per hour can be explained by measurable characteristics, including part-time work (19 per cent of the gap), sectors and occupations (about 18 per cent) and the level of requirements of the job (about 13 per cent). About 40 per cent remains unexplained. That does not automatically mean discrimination, but it does not rule it out. Career breaks for childcare or caring are not captured in the data. The figures apply to 2025.
Are there differences in the gender pay gap by region and sector?
Yes, clear ones. In 2025, the unadjusted gender pay gap was 5 per cent in eastern Germany and 17 per cent in western Germany. In the public sector it was 4 per cent, in the private sector 17 per cent. The adjusted value was 6 per cent in the west and 9 per cent in the east. The figures come from the earnings survey (reference month April, companies with ten or more employees) and describe averages, not causes.
How many management positions are held by women?
The share of women in management positions in Germany was 30.3 per cent in 2025; in 2015 it was 29.3 per cent. According to Destatis, the EU average in 2025 was 35.9 per cent. For comparison: women made up 47.1 per cent of the employed. Management positions include, among others, the managing directors of small companies, managing directors or heads of department in large companies, and senior positions in public administration.
What is the glass ceiling?
The glass ceiling describes an invisible but hard-to-overcome barrier that separates women, regardless of their performance, from advancement into senior management. This is how the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission summarises it in its 1995 report, tracing the term back to a Wall Street Journal article from 1986. It is an image, not a measured value: statistics show shares, such as 30.3 per cent women in management in 2025, but on their own they show no causes.
What contradictory expectations do women in leadership positions face?
In leadership, women often meet two standards that contradict each other: they are expected to meet the role expectations placed on women and, at the same time, what counts as good leadership. According to role congruity theory (Eagly and Karau 2002), this perceived incompatibility means that women are less often considered as leaders and that their leadership behaviour is judged less favourably than men's. This describes expectations in their surroundings, not characteristics of women.
Is the same leadership behaviour judged differently in women and men?
Research finds this as a tendency: according to role congruity theory, leadership behaviour that is seen as appropriate in a man is judged less favourably in a woman. The lack-of-fit model by Heilman and Caleo (2018) explains it this way: if someone is seen as a poor fit for a position, lower performance expectations arise, which can distort judgements. These are findings from studies. How strong the effect is in an individual company cannot be derived from them.
What is the state of pay transparency in Germany?
EU Directive 2023/970 should have been transposed by 7 June 2026; according to the sources examined, no German implementing act exists yet. According to a reply from the Federal Government of 8 July 2026, the ministry is preparing a draft and the legislative procedure has not been started. Until then, the German Pay Transparency Act (Entgelttransparenzgesetz) of 2017 applies. Media report that a law is planned for 2027 and central obligations only for 2028; that is not a decision. As at 13 November 2026.
Am I entitled to find out what my colleagues earn?
Possibly. Under the Pay Transparency Act (Entgelttransparenzgesetz), employees in establishments that normally have more than 200 employees can request information from the same employer if they name a comparable job. According to the Federal Labour Court (judgment of 19 February 2026, 8 AZR 83/25), the entitlement relates to the employee's own establishment and the last completed calendar year; there is no company-wide entitlement. This is not legal advice; the works council, a trade union or a specialist lawyer can clarify the individual case.
Gender and gender diversity at work
What is the Genderbread Person?
The Genderbread Person is a widely used teaching model that presents gender not as a single characteristic but in several separate dimensions, usually gender identity, gender expression, physical sex characteristics and attraction. As a teaching model, it simplifies. It does not fix the terms in any binding way; they are described, among other places, in the glossary of the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs (as of 20 January 2026, in German). Anyone using the model should treat it as an illustration and not as a test for individual people.
What distinguishes gender identity, gender expression, physical characteristics and sexual orientation?
They are four different things. Gender identity is the inner knowledge of which gender one belongs to. Gender expression is what becomes visible on the outside, such as clothing, hairstyle or manner. Physical sex characteristics are innate, and sexual orientation describes which gender or genders someone feels romantically or sexually drawn to. None of these characteristics can be read off from another.
What do cisgender and transgender mean?
Cisgender means that a person feels they belong to the gender that was assigned to them at birth. Transgender, trans* for short, describes people who do not identify, or not only, with the gender assigned at birth. According to the glossary of the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, medical measures are not a prerequisite for living in the gender one feels. Which term someone uses for themselves is for that person to decide.
Are there legally only the genders male and female in Germany?
No. In 2017 the Federal Constitutional Court (1 BvR 2019/16) ruled that German civil status law must allow a further positive entry alongside 'male' and 'female', or dispense with an entry altogether. Since December 2018, 'diverse' has been possible. Since the Self-Determination Act (Selbstbestimmungsgesetz, in force since 1 November 2024), the entry can be changed or deleted by a declaration to the registry office. This describes the legal position, not how gender is to be understood scientifically.
What does non-binary mean?
Non-binary people do not see themselves as exclusively a man or exclusively a woman. According to the glossary of the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, the term is also used as an umbrella term for further gender identities, such as agender or genderfluid. Non-binary describes a gender identity, not a sexual orientation and not appearance. In the workplace, this practically means respecting the self-description, name and pronouns that a person gives.
What does intersex mean?
Intersex (inter*) people have innate physical characteristics that, by medical norms, cannot be clearly classed as male or female. Their gender identities can differ. The Federal Ministry for Family Affairs expressly points out that being intersex is not to be confused with being transgender. The glossary lists the term 'Hermaphrodit' only as one of several self-descriptions. Anyone who does not know how a person describes themselves is better off using 'inter*'.
What is heteronormativity in everyday office life?
Heteronormativity means silently assuming heterosexuality as the normal case. The glossary of the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs describes it as something that is often taken for granted. In everyday office life, it shows in assumptions made in small talk, for example: the new colleague will surely bring her husband to the party. Open wording such as 'partner' or 'Who are you bringing?' avoids the assumption without pushing anyone to disclose anything.
Do you only have to come out once?
No. According to the glossary of the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, coming out is a lifelong process. Whenever someone meets new colleagues, managers or clients, they decide again whether to reveal something about themselves and how much. The glossary distinguishes an inner coming out, that is, acknowledging one's own identity or sexual orientation, and an outer one, living it openly. How open someone is at work is for that person to decide.
Why should you not out other people?
Because the decision about coming out lies with the person themselves, and an unwanted outing cannot be taken back. The Federal Ministry for Family Affairs counts even the use of a name someone has given up as a form of forced outing. In addition, information on sexual orientation belongs under Article 9 of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR, in German DSGVO) to the specially protected data. Anyone who learns something keeps it to themselves and asks whom it may be told to.
How do you address people inclusively, and how do you deal with pronouns?
The most reliable approach is to use the names and pronouns a person gives, and, if in doubt, to ask voluntarily and politely. Where gender is irrelevant, neutral forms of address help, such as 'Hello Alex Muster' or 'dear team' and 'everyone' instead of 'ladies and gentlemen'. The glossary of Germany's Federal Family Ministry calls repeated or deliberate misgendering, that is, wrong names or pronouns, discrimination. The notes on forms of address are recommendations, not a legal obligation.
Putting diversity management into practice: training, workshops, monitoring
How do you introduce diversity management?
One possible sequence has six steps: baseline analysis, goals, measures, responsibility, indicators and transfer into everyday work. The order is my own; it is not prescribed anywhere. Legally, § 12 of the German General Equal Treatment Act (Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz, AGG) obliges employers to prevent discrimination; the Act does not prescribe a programme under the name diversity management. Studies suggest settling responsibilities clearly, because training alone achieved little where it was examined.
Is a one-day training enough?
The evidence suggests it is not enough on its own, but it does not expressly prove this for a one-day session. The meta-analysis by Bezrukova and colleagues (2016, 260 studies) found small to medium effects, g = 0.20 after correction for publication bias. Longer trainings had stronger effects, and embedded ones did better than stand-alone ones. Knowledge remained stable, while effects on attitudes faded over time. The samples consisted mainly of students in the US, so statements about individual organisations are limited.
What aims can diversity training have, and what does it achieve?
Training mostly aims at three learning outcomes: attitudes, knowledge and behaviour. In the meta-analysis by Bezrukova and colleagues (2016), the effects were larger for knowledge (g = 0.57) and behaviour (0.48) than for attitudes (0.30). Knowledge stayed stable over time, while attitude effects faded. Programmes that combined awareness-raising with behavioural training performed better than pure awareness training. The data come mostly from US studies with students.
What is the Diversity Fresco, and what is known about its effect?
The Diversity Fresco is a three-hour workshop in which groups use cards to work out how stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination are connected. It was developed by ESSEC Business School and Belugames. I facilitate the workshop myself, so I am not neutral here. I am not aware of an independent impact study on this format. For diversity training in general, the meta-analysis by Bezrukova and colleagues (2016) found small to medium effects, most stable for knowledge, weaker and less lasting for attitudes. A workshop does not replace changing procedures.
How does a Fresco workshop work?
The groups work in several rounds with cards and evaluate the result together at the end, guided by a facilitator. The Diversity Fresco and the Sexism Fresco each take three hours. Before booking, it is worth asking how follow-up and transfer into everyday work are planned, because in the meta-analysis by Bezrukova and colleagues (2016), training that was embedded in further measures performed better.
Why does diversity management need management to take responsibility?
Because the duty to protect against discrimination lies legally with the employer, and because measures with clear responsibility had the clearest effect in the research. Under § 12 of the German General Equal Treatment Act (AGG), the employer must take the necessary measures. In the analysis of 708 US establishments (Kalev, Dobbin and Kelly 2006), plans, committees and full-time diversity staff positions brought the broadest gains in management. The data come from the US and end in 2002; the study does not show whether backing alone is enough.
How do you measure the success of diversity management?
With indicators that fall into three groups: structural figures (shares by level, application, hiring and promotion pathways), process figures (participation in measures, number and handling time of complaints) and experience data from surveys. Every figure needs a comparison period and a reading: more complaints can point to a worse climate, or to the complaints route finally being used. Information on, for example, origin or sexual orientation is subject to data protection (Article 9 GDPR).
Can collaboration in diverse teams become harder at first?
Yes, that is possible, and it depends on the conditions. A meta-analysis of 108 studies with 10,632 teams (Stahl and colleagues 2010) found that cultural diversity leads to process losses through more task conflict and lower social integration, but also to higher creativity and satisfaction. The effect depended, among other things, on task complexity, team size and how long the team had existed. The summary we checked says nothing about error rates.
How do I recognise a need for training?
Best from concrete signs in your own organisation rather than from gut feeling: complaints and how they are handled, results of surveys on the working climate, the make-up of the workforce by level, and how selection, appraisal and promotion work. If problems show up mainly in procedures, the procedures should be changed. In the study by Kalev and colleagues (2006), assigned responsibilities had a stronger effect than training. Personal data may only be collected within the limits of data protection law.
Why do one-off trainings fizzle out?
Often because they are not embedded in procedures and responsibilities; the studies suggest this, but there is no causal proof. Bezrukova and colleagues (2016) found higher effects for embedded training than for stand-alone training (g = 0.57 compared with 0.36); attitude effects faded over time. Kalev and colleagues (2006) saw no clear advantage of training for the make-up of management in their comparison of companies. Linking training to selection, appraisal and meeting rules is my own conclusion from this.
Leadership, self-reflection and collaboration
What is a blind spot regarding prejudice and bias?
A blind spot is the tendency to see biases more in others than in oneself. Pronin, Lin and Ross (2002) found in several studies that respondents considered themselves less susceptible than others. Some held on to the objectivity of their own judgement even after it had been explained to them how the bias might work. Knowing about biases therefore does not protect automatically. Fixed criteria and cross-checking by others tend to help more; that is my inference.
Why do I often react the same way in conflicts?
People often have fixed habits in how they deal with feelings, and these differ from person to person. Gross and John (2003) measured two such strategies: reappraisal, that is, interpreting the situation differently, and suppression of emotional expression. Those who reappraised more often reported more positive emotions and better relationships, while those who suppressed more often reported worse ones. The findings are correlational and come mostly from students. For burdensome patterns, psychological counselling can help.
What is behind the 'Yes, but' in times of change?
Often a mixed attitude rather than plain rejection. Piderit (2000) proposes understanding reactions to change as multidimensional attitudes and not as simple resistance. Agreement and reservation can therefore exist side by side. A 'Yes, but' should not be read too quickly as a blockade; it is a reason to ask what exactly is causing concern. This is a theoretical proposal from organisational research, not a measurement of how common it is.
How do I avoid labelling someone?
By treating impressions as assumptions and checking them against concrete behaviour. It helps to separate observation from interpretation and to ask when something is unclear. On expectancy effects, Jussim and Harber (2005) summarise about 35 years of research: self-fulfilling prophecies in the classroom exist, but are mostly weak, and possibly stronger for members of stigmatised groups. Expectations often predict performance because they are accurate. This applies to schools and cannot simply be transferred to companies.
How do I get more perspectives into decisions?
Most reliably by actually asking the others involved instead of merely guessing their view. Eyal, Steffel and Epley (2018) found in 25 experiments that mentally putting oneself in someone's position did not lead to higher accuracy, whereas asking for their view directly did. Galinsky and Moskowitz (2000) found that perspective-taking reduced stereotypical judgements. Both fit together: putting yourself in someone's position can reduce prejudice, but what others think you only know after asking.
Why is recognition at work important?
Recognition can increase employees' willingness to help, mainly because it makes them feel socially valued. Grant and Gino (2010) showed this in four experiments, including a field study with university fundraisers: a thank-you increased willingness to help, also towards third parties. It was not self-efficacy but the feeling of being valued that explained the effect. The study looks at helping behaviour, not at enjoyment of work or performance overall.
What is intercultural competence, and can it be learned?
Intercultural competence means characteristics, attitudes and abilities that help people act well in culturally mixed situations. The overview by Leung, Ang and Tan (2014) distinguishes models based on traits and worldviews, models based on abilities, and mixed forms. It also covers selection, training and development. Whether and how well it can be learned I leave open here, because I know of no reliable results on this.
Why do intercultural misunderstandings arise?
Often because those involved interpret the same remark according to their own expectations and assume the others see it the same way. That is how I classify it. It is supported by a finding on understanding others: in 25 experiments, mentally putting oneself in someone's position did not improve accuracy, whereas asking directly did (Eyal, Steffel and Epley 2018). In practice this means treating interpretations as guesses and clarifying them, especially with regard to language, politeness and feedback.
What is the difference between direct and indirect communication?
Direct means stating concerns, criticism and wishes explicitly; indirect means conveying more through hints, context and consideration for the relationship. These are descriptive tendencies, not national stereotypes. Taras, Steel and Kirkman (2016) found in a meta-analysis of cultural values that about 80 per cent of the variation lies within countries. How someone communicates also depends on the person, profession, situation and relationship. Asking what is meant clarifies more than origin does.
How do I avoid culturalisation?
By not explaining behaviour too quickly by origin and by not transferring country averages to individual people. Taras, Steel and Kirkman (2016) analysed 558 studies from 32 countries or regions: a country is often a poor stand-in for culture. They see, among other things, occupation and social class as more informative. Culture models describe averages of groups, not individual persons. It is more helpful to look at the person and the situation and to ask.
Disclosure: Matthias Linke is an officially licensed facilitator of the Diversity Fresco and offers workshops. Statements on effectiveness rely on independent studies, not on the publisher’s claims.